​CHAPTER 5 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
 
EARLY CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS:
1. Dӧbereiner’s Triads

• The elements were divided into a group of three such that their atomic masses were in increasing order and the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average of the atomic mass of the other two elements.
• For e.g.: The Li, Na and K triad. Atomic masses of Li, Na and K are 6.9, 23.0 and 39.0 respectively. Average of Li and K atomic masses= (6.9+39.0)/2= 22.95≈ 23.0

2. Newland’s Laws of octaves

• John Newland, an English scientist, arranged all elements in increasing order of their atomic masses and found that every eighth element had properties similar to that of the first element.
• It was however found that this law was only applicable to elements upto calcium. The elements after calcium did not follow this rule.

 
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Mendeleev formulated the Periodic Law which states that the properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses. He arranged the elements in a table called the periodic table consisting of vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called ‘periods’.
Limitations:

• No fixed position could be given to hydrogen.
• Isotopes were discovered after Mendeleev’s Periodic table was formed. Accommodating isotopes in the table posed a problem
• It was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between two elements.

 
THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
Henry Moseley showed that that the atomic number of an element is a more fundamental property. The modern periodic law states that properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Trends in the modern periodic table:
1. Valency: The valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons present in the outermost shell of its atom. Valency increases in a period on going from left to right. Valency remains constant on going down the group.
2. Atomic size: Atomic size refers to the radius of an atom i.e. the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of the isolated atom. The atomic size decreases in moving from left to right along a period but it increases as we go down the group.
3. Metallic and non-metallic character: Metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group. Non-metallic character increases across a period and decreases down a group.

​  CHAPTER 4 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
 
Carbon atom forms covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of an electron pair between two atoms.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON ATOMS

• Carbon forms bonds with other atoms of carbon. This gives rise to large molecules. This property is called catenation. The compounds thus formed have long chains of carbon.
• Carbon has a valency of four and is therefore capable of bonding with four other carbon atoms or atoms of some other mono-valent element. The bonds formed by carbon with other elements are very strong which makes these compounds highly stable.

Carbon also forms compounds containing double and triple bonds between carbon atoms. These carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains, or rings.
The ability of carbon to form chains gives rise to a homologous series of compounds in which the same functional group is attached to carbon chains at different lengths.
The functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids lead to the carbon compound having characteristic properties.
 

                              CHAPTER 3 METALS AND NON-METALS
 
METALS
Physical properties:

• Lustre
• Hardness
• Malleability
• Ductility
• Good conductor of heat and electricity

Chemical properties:

• When metals are burnt in air: Metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.
• When metals react with water: Metals react with water to form metal oxide and hydrogen.
• When metals react with acids: Metals react with acids to form salt and hydrogen.
• When metals react with other metal salts: Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their compounds in solution form.

Reactivity Series:
The reactivity series of metals is as follows. Reactivity decreases as the series progresses:
K          Potassium
Na       Sodium
Ca        Calcium
Mg       Magnesium
Al         Aluminium
Zn        Zinc
Fe        Iron
Pb        Lead
H         Hydrogen
Cu        Copper
Hg        Mercury
Ag        Silver
Au       Gold
 
REACTION OF METALS AND NON-METALS
Metals and non-metals react to form compounds like ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds: The compounds formed by transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal are known as ionic compounds or electrovalent compounds. The properties of ionic compounds are:

• Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solid, hard and brittle.
• Melting and boiling points: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
• Solubility: Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble in other solvents like kerosene, etc.
• Conduction of electricity: Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state but in molten state they are good conductors of electricity.

 
 
OCCURRENCE OF METALS
Extraction of metals: Metals are extracted from their ore. To extract metals which are low in the reactivity series, their oxides are reduced to metals by heating alone. The metals which are in the middle of the reactivity series are usually found in the form of sulphides and carbonates. These are converted into oxides first and then are extracted from the oxides. The highly reactive metals that are on the top of the reactivity series are obtained by electrolytic reduction.
Enrichment of ores: Ores usually contain large amount of impurities. They have to be enriched first before extracting the metal.
Refining of metals: The metals obtained by various reduction processes are not very pure and have to be further refined to remove the fine impurities. The most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic refining: in this process, the impure metal is made the anode and pure metal is made the cathode. A solution of the metal salt id used as an electrolyte. When current is passed through the electrolyte, the pure metal from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte and an equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte is deposited on the cathode.
 
CORROSION
Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal due to its reaction with its surroundings. For e.g. Rusting of iron when it comes in contact with the water vapour in the air.
Prevention of corrosion: There are a number of methods to prevent corrosion. Some of them are:

• Painting
• Oiling
• Greasing
• Galvanising
• Chrome plating
• Alloying